Beginning roughly in the 14th century in Florence, and later spreading through Europe with the development of printing press, a Renaissance of knowledge challenged traditional doctrines in science and theology, with the rediscovery of classical Greek and Roman knowledge.

　　大概在14世纪法兰西开始，印刷术传遍欧洲，文艺复兴时期的文化挑战着可续技术方面的传统主义。是经典希腊和罗马文化的继续发展。

　　Simultaneously Protestant Reformation under German Martin Luther questioned Papal authority.

　　同时德国马丁路德领导下的宗教改革挑战着罗马教皇的权威。

　　Henry VIII sundered the English Church, allying in ensuing religious wars between German and Spanish rulers.

　　亨利八世分裂了英国宗教，在后期的宗教战争中与德国和西班牙结盟。。

　　The Reconquista of Portugal and Spain led to a series of oceanic explorations resulting in the Age of Discovery that established direct links with Africa, the Americas and Asia, while religious wars continued to be fought in Europe, which ended in 1648 with the Peace of Westphalia.

　　在地理大发现时代葡萄牙和西班牙领导的一系列沿海收复失地运动使其直接与非洲、美洲和亚洲连在一起。同时宗教战争仍在欧洲持续，直到1648年威斯特法利亚和平才结束战争。

　　The Spanish crown maintained its hegemony in Europe and was leading power in the continent until the signing of the Treaty of the Pyrenees, which ended a conflict between Spain and France begun during the Thirty Years' War.

　　直到签订比利牛死合约，西班牙皇室霸权统治着欧洲大陆。这份合约象征着西班牙和法兰西之间的三十年战争最终结束。

　　An unprecedented series of major wars and political revolutions took place around the Europe and indeed the world in the 1610 to 1700 period. Observers at the time, and many historians since, have argued that wars caused the revolutions.

　　欧洲1610年至1700年间，发生了一些列的前所未有的战争和政治改革。很多历史学家对于这一时期的研究一致认为改革挑起了战争。